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Conrad Waddington was a hugely influential British polymath. He was born in 1903 in India but was sent back to England to go to school. He studied at Cambridge University but spent most of his career at the University of Edinburgh. His academic interests ranged from developmental biology to the visual arts to philosophy, and the cross-fertilisation between these areas is evident in the new ways of thinking that he pioneered.

^{Figure 1.1 The image created by Conrad Waddington to represent the epigenetic landscape. The position of the ball represents different cell fates.}

Waddington presented his metaphorical epigenetic landscape in 1957 to exemplify concepts of developmental biology[7]. The landscape merits quite a bit of discussion. As you can see, there is a ball at the top of a hill. As the ball rolls down the hill, it can roll into one of several troughs towards the bottom of the hill. Visually this immediately suggests various things to us, because we have all at some point in our childhood rolled balls down hills, or stairs, or something.

What do we immediately understand when we see the image of Waddington’s landscape? We know that once a ball has reached the bottom it is likely to stay there unless we do something to it. We know that to get the ball back up to the top will be harder than rolling it down the hill in the first place. We also know that to roll the ball out of one trough and into another will be hard. It might even be easier to roll it part or all of the way back up and then direct it into a new trough, than to try and roll it directly from one trough to another. This is especially true if the two troughs we’re interested in are separated by more than one hillock.

This image is incredibly powerful in helping to visualise what might be happening during cellular development. The ball at the top of the hill is the zygote, the single cell that results from the fusion of one egg and one sperm. As the various cells of the body begin to differentiate (become more specialised), each cell is like a ball that has rolled further down the hill and headed into one of the troughs. Once it has gone as far as it can go, it’s going to stay there. Unless something extraordinarily dramatic happens, that cell is never going to turn into another cell type (jump across to another trough). Nor is it going to move back up to the top of the hill and then roll down again to give rise to all sorts of different cell types.

Like the time traveller’s levers, Waddington’s landscape at first just seems like another description. But it’s more than that, it’s a model that helps us to develop ways of thinking. Just like so many of the scientists in this chapter, Waddington didn’t know the details of the mechanisms but that didn’t really matter. He gave us a way of thinking about a problem that was useful.

John Gurdon’s experiments had shown that sometimes, if he pushed hard enough, he could move a cell from the very bottom of a trough at the bottom of the hill, right the way back up to the top. From there it can roll down and become any other cell type once more. And every toad that John Gurdon and his team created taught us two other important things. The first is that cloning – the recreation of an animal from the cells of an adult – is possible, because that’s what he had achieved. The second thing it taught us is that cloning is really difficult, because he had to perform hundreds of SCNTs for every toad that he managed to generate.