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Passing by value causes only the Brass component of a BrassPlus object to be passed to the fv() function. But the implicit upcasting that occurs with references and pointers causes the fr() and fp() functions to use Brass::ViewAcct() for Brass objects and BrassPlus::ViewAcct() for BrassPlus objects.

Implicit upcasting makes it possible for a base-class pointer or reference to refer to either a base-class object or a derived-class object, and that produces the need for dynamic binding. Virtual member functions are the C++ answer to that need.

Virtual Member Functions and Dynamic Binding

Let’s revisit the process of invoking a method with a reference or pointer. Consider the following code:

BrassPlus ophelia;    // derived-class object

Brass * bp;           // base-class pointer

bp = &ophelia        // Brass pointer to BrassPlus object

bp->ViewAcct();       // which version?

As discussed before, if ViewAcct() is not declared as virtual in the base class, bp->ViewAcct() goes by the pointer type (Brass *) and invokes Brass::ViewAcct(). The pointer type is known at compile time, so the compiler can bind ViewAcct() to Brass::ViewAcct() at compile time. In short, the compiler uses static binding for nonvirtual methods.

But if ViewAcct() is declared as virtual in the base class, bp->ViewAcct() goes by the object type (BrassPlus) and invokes BrassPlus::ViewAcct(). In this example, you can see that the object type is BrassPlus, but, in general, (as in Listing 13.10) the object type might only be determined when the program is running. Therefore, the compiler generates code that binds ViewAcct() to Brass::ViewAcct() or BrassPlus::ViewAcct(), depending on the object type, while the program executes. In short, the compiler uses dynamic binding for virtual methods.

In most cases, dynamic binding is a good thing because it allows a program to choose the method designed for a particular type. Given this fact, you might be wondering about the following:

• Why have two kinds of binding?

• If dynamic binding is so good, why isn’t it the default?

• How does it work?

We’ll look at answers to these questions next.

Why Two Kinds of Binding and Why Static Is the Default

If dynamic binding allows you to redefine class methods but static binding makes a partial botch of it, why have static binding at all? There are two reasons: efficiency and a conceptual model.

First, let’s consider efficiency. For a program to be able to make a runtime decision, it has to have some way to keep track of what sort of object a base-class pointer or reference refers to, and that entails some extra processing overhead. (You’ll see one method of dynamic binding later.) If, for example, you design a class that won’t be used as a base class for inheritance, you don’t need dynamic binding. Similarly, if you have a derived class, such as the RatedPlayer example, that does not redefine any methods, you don’t need dynamic binding. In these cases, it makes sense to use static binding and gain a little efficiency. The fact that static binding is more efficient is the reason it is the default choice for C++. Stroustrup says that one of the guiding principles of C++ is that you shouldn’t have to pay (in memory usage or processing time) for features you don’t use. You should therefore go to virtual functions only if the program design needs them.

Next, let’s consider the conceptual model. When you design a class, you may have member functions that you don’t want redefined in derived classes. For example, the Brass::Balance() function, which returns the account balance, seems like a function that shouldn’t be redefined. By making this function nonvirtual, you accomplish two things. First, you make it more efficient. Second, you announce that it is your intention that this function not be redefined. That suggests reserving the virtual label just for methods you expect to be redefined.

Tip

If a method in a base class will be redefined in a derived class, you should make it virtual. If the method should not be redefined, you should make it nonvirtual.

Of course, when you design a class, it’s not always obvious into which category a method falls. Like many aspects of real life, class design is not a linear process.

How Virtual Functions Work

C++ specifies how virtual functions should behave, but it leaves the implementation up to the compiler writer. You don’t need to know the implementation method to use virtual functions, but seeing how it is done may help you understand the concepts better, so let’s take a look.